DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of the four chemical building blocks, or nucleotides, that make up an individual’s DNA. This technology has revolutionized the field of genetics, allowing researchers to explore the genetic basis of many diseases and to develop new therapies and treatments. The first DNA sequencing methods were…

Genetics is the study of how traits are inherited and passed down from one generation to the next. It encompasses the study of genes, their function, and how they interact with one another and with the environment to shape an organism’s characteristics. The field of genetics has undergone tremendous advances in recent years, driven by…

What is toxicology? Toxicology also called the science of poisons, is a branch of science, medicine, and biology that studies adverse effects that occur in living organisms and the environment due to chemicals, substances (including environmental agents and chemical compounds found in nature, as well as pharmaceutical compounds that are synthesized for medical use by…

Non-clinical studies are those that are conducted outside of a healthcare setting, such as in a laboratory. They are an important part of the drug development process, providing information on how a new drug behaves in the body and how it is metabolized. Non-clinical studies are also important for safety testing. Benefits of non-clinical studies:…

A clinical study is a research study in which people volunteer to participate. The purpose of a clinical study is to answer specific questions about new therapies or new ways of using known treatments. Clinical studies are the main way that doctors find out if a new medical approach is safe and effective. The main…

Xenograft models, also known as heterotransplantation models, are widely used in cancer research to study the biology of tumors and test the efficacy of new cancer therapies. In a xenograft model, human cancer cells or tissues are transplanted into an animal host, typically a mouse, to create a tumor that can be studied in vivo.…

Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their interactions with the body. It is a broad field that encompasses the discovery, development, and use of drugs for therapeutic purposes. Pharmacologists study the effects of drugs on the body and the ways in which they can be used to treat or prevent disease. One of the…

Cancer research is a broad field that encompasses a wide range of scientific disciplines, including genetics, immunology, pharmacology, and epidemiology. Its goal is to understand the underlying mechanisms of cancer development and progression and to develop new treatments and preventive strategies to combat the disease. Cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease, with many different…

In vitro and in vivo studies are two fundamental approaches used in biological research to investigate the effects of various factors on living organisms. While both methods are critical for advancing our understanding of biological processes, they differ in important ways. In vitro studies, also known as “test-tube” studies, are conducted in a laboratory setting…

Animals have been used in scientific research for centuries, with a wide range of species being used to study various aspects of biology, physiology, and disease. Animal research has played a critical role in advancing our understanding of the human body and in the development of new medical treatments. One of the primary reasons animals…